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Application: shredder residue

Non-ferrous recovery from shredder residue and Zorba

Magnets take the steel out of a metal shredder's output. What is left still holds aluminum, copper, brass, zinc, magnesium and some stainless steel, mixed with plastics, rubber, foam, glass and dirt. This page follows that mix from the magnet to Zorba, the eddy current separator's product, and on to the sorters that split it further.

By [author name, role and employer] · Technical review by [reviewer name, role and employer] · Updated

  • Aluminum and non-ferrous
  • Ferrous
  • Fiber
  • Glass
  • Film
  • Other and residue

1The stream

Metal shredders take end-of-life vehicles, appliances and mixed scrap. Source: Argonne, 2011 (source 2). Magnets take out the steel, and some yards also use air separation.

What is left is a non-ferrous residue. It mixes plastics and rubber, foam and fabric, wood, stones, dirt and glass, circuit boards and insulated wire, and some stainless steel. It also holds the non-ferrous metals, mainly aluminum, copper, magnesium, brass and zinc. Source: Kelly and Apelian (WPI) for the Aluminum Association, Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life, 2016 (source 1).

Once the metals have been recovered, the non-metallic remainder is called shredder residue. Argonne National Laboratory puts it at about 25% of a vehicle's weight. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, End-of-life vehicle recycling: state of the art of resource recovery from shredder residue, 2011 (source 2).

On this page, non-ferrous residue means the mix after the magnet, which still carries metal. Shredder residue means what is left at the end.

Density and moisture vary widely. Studies compiled in 2003 put shredder residue at about 283 to 563 kg/m³ (about 18 to 35 lb/ft³), with moisture from 0.8 to 27% by weight. Water is often added during shredding to prevent fires. Source: Zevenhoven and Saeed, Helsinki University of Technology, report TKK-ENY-14, 2003 (source 3). Densities for other streams are in the bulk density reference.

By one estimate, little aluminum reaches landfill after the shredder. From the separation yards' survey answers, Kelly and Apelian estimated the aluminum lost to landfill over the separation steps at about 0.2% of the aluminum. Aluminum sorted into other metal products was not counted as lost. They estimated the overall US recycling rate for automotive aluminum at 91%. Their survey covered about 32% of the downstream market. Source: Kelly and Apelian, 2016 (source 1).

Other metals left in the residue: [how much copper, stainless steel and other metal US shredder residue still holds: Argonne's full 2011 report and California DTSC's 2013 evaluation would answer it, but neither could be read].

2From the shredder to Zorba

Plants differ, but the sources describe the same broad order. Some yards take off a light fraction by air first. Steel comes out next, then screens split the residue by size, then a separator works on each size fraction, then sensor sorters pick out what the separators leave.

The usual order after the shredder (plants vary; each stage with what it makes)
StageWhat it doesWhat it makes
1. ShredderTears vehicles, appliances and mixed scrap into pieces.Mixed shred
2. Air separation, in some yardsSplits the shred into light and heavy fractions.A light fraction, taken off early
3. MagnetsTake out the steel.Ferrous shred
4. ScreensSplit the non-ferrous residue into size fractions.Size fractions, each sent to its own separator
5. Eddy current separatorsThrow conductive metal out of each fraction. One maker's chain adds a fines model for fractions under 20 mm.Zorba
6. Sensor sortersInduction and multi-sensor sorters pick out stainless steel, wire and circuit boards.Stainless (Zurik) and insulated-wire (cable) products
7. What is leftGoes to landfill or further sorting. One maker sorts plastics out of it with NIR sorters.Shredder residue

Sources: Kelly and Apelian, 2016, for stages 2, 3, 5 and 7 (source 1); STEINERT, Auto shredder residue, undated, the maker's description of its own chain, for stages 2, 3 and 5 to 7 (source 4); Argonne, All Auto Shredding, 2011, for stages 3 to 6 at one plant (source 5); ReMA, July 2026, for Zurik (source 6).

One documented plant

Argonne evaluated one shredder that ran on vehicles only. After the shredder, the plant ran magnetic separation, then a trommel to split the residue by size, then non-ferrous recovery, then stainless recovery. Source: Argonne, All Auto Shredding, 2011 (source 5).

  • a trommel with 1.5 in and 6 in holes
  • a flip-flow screen cutting at 12 mm
  • an eddy current separator
  • an inductive sorter for stainless steel

At the same plant, a magnetic head pulley on the trommel's infeed conveyor pulled out a ferrous-rich fraction, just over 50% iron, that could be fed back. Large, heavy, round pieces such as knuckles and gears were hard for the magnets to lift. Source: Argonne, 2011 (source 5).

Steel before the separator

Zorba must have passed one or more magnets. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026 (source 6). Eriez's manual lists shredder residue among its separator's uses. It says the separator is designed to run with minimal ferrous metal in the feed, and says magnets should be placed upstream where needed to remove it. Source: Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015 (source 7).

This guide follows the separator makers' manuals: magnets go ahead of the separator, and the separator is not relied on to remove steel.

Magnet types and placement are in removing ferrous metal before the separator. Trommels, flip-flow and finger screens are compared in screening ahead of separation.

3What the separator makes

On a shredder line, the eddy current separator's product is Zorba. Kelly and Apelian say most of the aluminum leaves the non-ferrous residue at the separator, and that Zorba typically holds about 65% aluminum alloy by weight. Source: Kelly and Apelian, 2016 (source 1).

Zorba is a mix because the separator sorts by a property, not by metal. Throw follows a metal's conductivity divided by its density. On that ratio magnesium scores about 12.5, close to aluminum's 13.7, so it travels with the aluminum. Copper (about 6.7), zinc (2.4) and brass (1.8) are thrown less far, but they still respond. Source: Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated (source 8). The eddy current reference gives the ratio for each metal.

ReMA's grade allows for that mix. Zorba may contain aluminum, copper, lead, magnesium, stainless steel, nickel, tin and zinc, in shares the buyer and seller agree. It is sold as Zorba plus a number for its estimated non-ferrous content. So Zorba 90 is about 90% non-ferrous metal, not 90% aluminum. It may be screened into size ranges. Source: ReMA, July 2026 (source 6).

Products of a shredder line, as ReMA defines them (how each is made, and what it is; full limits are on the scrap grades page)
GradeHow ReMA says it is madeWhat it is
ZorbaEddy current, air separation, flotation or screening, after one or more magnetsMixed non-ferrous metal, mostly aluminum, sold by its estimated non-ferrous percentage
TweakMechanical or hand separationShredder aluminum, with at most 4% free zinc, 1% free magnesium, 1.5% analytical iron and 5% non-metallics
TwitchWet or dry media separation; must be dryFloated shredder aluminum, with at most 1% each of free zinc, free magnesium and analytical iron, and 2% non-metallics
ZebraMedia separationHigh-density non-ferrous metal: brass, copper, zinc, non-magnetic stainless steel and copper wire
ZeppelinMedia separationLight-density non-ferrous metal: thin-gauge aluminum and magnesium
ZurikSensor sorting, by induction or X-ray, after magnetsMostly stainless steel
VesperSeparated from Zorba or Twitch; approved in 2025Wrought aluminum: sheet, extrusion and plate
GingerMechanically separated from Zorba and Twitch; approved in 2026Mixed shredded cast aluminum

Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, for all eight grades (source 6); its 2022 grade pages for Zebra and Zeppelin match (source 9); ReMA, Vesper article, 2025, for Vesper's approval date (source 23). Every limit for these grades is in aluminum scrap grades.

Most of these grades say how a product is made, not which product it is made from; Vesper and Ginger are the exceptions. Kelly and Apelian describe heavy-media plants that take Zorba as their feed (section 6).

Where the splitter sits matters here too. Kelly and Apelian say Tweak is known as "long throw" aluminum, recovered by controlling how far pieces are thrown at the separator. Source: Kelly and Apelian, 2016 (source 1). The trade between recovery and purity is in setting the splitter.

STEINERT describes eccentric-pole separators for Zorba in its own shredder residue chain. Source: STEINERT, Auto shredder residue, undated (source 4). What each maker claims for each rotor layout is in concentric and eccentric rotors.

4Induction sorters on screened residue

Some metals barely respond to the separator. Stainless steel scores about 0.18 on the ratio in section 3, against about 13.7 for aluminum. Source: Goudsmit, undated (source 8). ReMA defines its stainless-rich grade, Zurik, as made by sensor sorting, with induction or X-ray. Source: ReMA, July 2026 (source 6).

An induction sorter detects conductive pieces with an electromagnetic field as they ride a fast belt, and air jets eject them. STEINERT gives its sensor's sensitivity as well under 1 mm, and rates the machine for pieces from 1 to 200 mm, with a fines version for 1 to 20 mm. Source: STEINERT, Induction sorting system, undated, the maker's own description (source 10).

STEINERT places that sorter after the magnets and the separator, to recover the metal left in the residue. An image-processing option tells stainless steel, cable and circuit boards apart. Source: STEINERT, undated (source 10).

MSS says its MetalMiner sorts ferrous, non-ferrous and stainless metal down to 1 mm, on a belt or a chute, and lists shredder residue among its uses. Source: MSS, MetalMiner, undated (source 11).

One plant's sorters

A TOMRA customer story describes a US scrap metal recycler that installed six of TOMRA's FINDER sorters, which use electromagnetic sensors, on shredder residue. A double-deck screen first split the residue into three sizes, and one of the sorters cleans the stainless product. Before the sorters, the line used 10 people picking mixed Zorba by hand. Source: TOMRA, customer story, 2021 (source 12).

The same story says a regular TOMRA plant-building partner designed and installed the plant, and TOMRA supplied the sorters. These are TOMRA's statements about its own customer. This guide has not seen the plant.

How each sensor works, and where each sorter sits after the separator, is in sensor-based sorting for metals. The two technologies are set side by side in eddy current against sensor-based sorting.

On the sensor-sorter feed conveyors the publisher's affiliate has built at metal recyclers: [what material ran on them (Zorba, Twitch, e-scrap or shredder residue), and whether a separator ran ahead of the sorter: question for Remcon's shop]

5Fines and wire

How much is fines

The share of fines depends on what goes into the shredder. In Argonne's test of a shredder run on vehicles only, material under 12 mm was about 2.5% of the shredder's feed. Typical shredder residue processed in Argonne's pilot plant averaged 32% fines, partly because normal shredder feed carries dirt and rock. Source: Argonne, All Auto Shredding, 2011 (source 5).

Metal in the fines: [how much non-ferrous metal shredder fines under 12 mm hold: the one published figure found could not be read at its source].

Screening the fines

Binder+Co says the mats in its flip-flow screen are stretched and relaxed at up to 500 m/s², which keeps damp or matted material from blinding them. It lists shredder residue and eddy current drops among the shredder-scrap streams its screening and sorting machines handle. Source: Binder+Co, BIVITEC and metal recycling brochures, undated (source 13).

General Kinematics offers a rod deck on its finger screen for taking out non-ferrous or shredder residue fines. Source: General Kinematics, FINGER-SCREEN, undated (source 14).

Separators for fines

STEINERT's shredder residue chain puts a fines model on fractions under 20 mm. That model, the EddyC FINES, is rated for pieces of 0.5 to 10 mm. STEINERT asks that the largest piece in its feed be no more than three times the smallest. Sources: STEINERT, Auto shredder residue (source 4) and EddyC FINES (source 15), both undated.

Makers' smallest stated sizes, model by model, are in the eddy current reference. The options for fine material are in recovering fine non-ferrous metal.

Wire

Wire is hard for a standard separator, as the eddy current reference explains. Eriez sells an ultra-high-frequency separator for it, with a 32-pole eccentric rotor, and lists it for minus 3/8 in material. Source: Eriez, Eddy current separators product page, undated (source 16).

Eriez says the unit recovers bare copper wire and other non-ferrous metal down to 2 to 3 mm from shredder residue. Its 2016 brochure names "Zorba drops" as the feed. Its 2026 brochure lists the unit in 40, 48 and 60 in widths, shipped with a Brute Force feeder to spread material across the belt. Sources: Eriez, product page (source 16); Eriez, Ultra high frequency eddy current separator brochure, 2016 (source 17); Eriez, brochure RB-780, September 2026 (source 18).

Insulated wire goes to sensor sorters. STEINERT's shredder residue chain makes an insulated-wire (cable) product by multi-sensor sorting. Source: STEINERT, Auto shredder residue, undated (source 4).

6Splitting Zorba by metal

Zorba can be sold as it comes off the separator, or split further by metal. Kelly and Apelian describe two routes for the main split: heavy media, which is wet, and X-ray transmission sorting, which is dry. Sensors that read composition then sort further. Source: Kelly and Apelian, 2016, Appendix A (source 1).

Ways to split Zorba by metal (stated criteria, not a ranking; no equipment tested by this site)
CriterionHeavy media (sink-float)X-ray transmission (XRT)X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and LIBS
Separates byDensity, in liquid baths made heavy with magnetite or ferrosilicon powderAtomic density, read by X-rays passing through each pieceThe elements at each piece's surface
Wet or dryWet; fines are screened out firstDry; pieces ride a belt and are ejected by air or mechanicallyDry
What it splitsA first bath at specific gravity 2.1 to 2.5 floats magnesium and dense plastics. A second at 3.1 to 3.5 floats cast and wrought aluminum, while copper, zinc and lead sink.Light metals from heavy ones: the same split as heavy media, done dryXRF reads heavy alloying elements, so it can sort heavy metals by type. LIBS identifies alloys; in research trials on wrought alloys it was over 95% correct.
ProductsKelly and Apelian identify the aluminum float as Twitch, typically 90 to 98% aluminum alloy, and the heavy sink as Zebra.A light product comparable to Twitch, and a heavy productHeavy metals by type; aluminum by alloy
Limits the sources stateSTEINERT, a maker of X-ray sorters, says wet separation is often not economic for profiles and light aluminum scrap.Cannot identify alloys. DOE laboratory authors report that its wrought product can still carry about 15% cast aluminum.XRF does not identify aluminum, silicon or magnesium. For XRF, paint, dust or oil can cause a wrong or missed reading.
Throughput the sources giveNone given in the sources readUp to 30 t/h on cast and wrought aluminum, per DOE laboratory authorsAbout 3 to 8 t/h, per DOE laboratory authors

Sources: Kelly and Apelian, 2016, Appendix A, for the baths, the XRT split, what XRF reads and the LIBS trials (source 1); Efe et al., PNNL and Argonne National Laboratory, 2025, for the XRT, XRF and LIBS limits and throughputs; the 15% figure is theirs, citing a 2017 paper by Kelly and Apelian (source 19); STEINERT, showcase, undated, for XRF sorting heavy metals by type (source 20); STEINERT, Aluminum recycling, undated, for its view on wet separation (source 21). "Comparable to Twitch" is this guide's wording; see the note on names below.

Who publishes this. Recyclers Guide is published by [LLC name], an affiliate of Remcon Equipment, Inc. Remcon designs and builds conveyors and eddy current separator systems around rotors or complete separators made by others, builds overhead magnet units, magnetic head pulleys and trommels, resells screens and feeders, and integrates equipment discussed on this site.

A STEINERT case study describes a US scrap yard that uses eddy current separators for most of its non-ferrous recovery. Multi-sensor sorters make what STEINERT calls Twitch at up to 99% aluminum, or take out magnesium. Since 2019 an XRF chute sorter has split heavy metals into copper, brass, zinc and stainless steel, down to about 5 mm. The figures are STEINERT's. Source: STEINERT, showcase, undated (source 20).

For profiles and light aluminum scrap, where it says wet separation is often not economic, STEINERT presents dry X-ray sorting as an alternative to sink-float, or an addition to it. Source: STEINERT, Aluminum recycling, undated (source 21).

A note on names. ReMA defines Twitch as floated aluminum from wet or dry media separation. So this guide calls the light product of an X-ray sorter comparable to Twitch, and uses the name Twitch for it only when quoting a maker. Ask your buyer how it will grade a sensor-sorted product. The grade rules are in aluminum scrap grades.

ReMA's newer grades describe what further sorting can take out of Zorba or Twitch: Vesper for wrought aluminum and Ginger for cast (section 3). Splitting cast from wrought, sensor by sensor, is in sensor-based sorting for metals.

7What to tell the maker

Give every maker the same facts in the same order. For a shredder line, these come from the sections above:

  • what the shredder takes in: vehicles only, or appliances and mixed scrap too, since fines and dirt vary with the feed (section 5)
  • the size fractions your screens make, and the feed rate in each (section 2)
  • how steel is removed, and how many magnets do it (section 2)
  • moisture, since water is often added at the shredder (section 1)
  • the product you sell: Zorba with its number, or a sorted product, and your buyer's limits (section 3)
  • whether stainless steel, wire or fines are in scope (sections 4 and 5)

The RFQ checklist covers the rest. Sizing an eddy current separator explains how width and model are chosen. To turn belt speed and density into a feed rate, use the belt feed-rate calculator. Separator, sorter, magnet and screen makers that list shredded scrap are in the directory.

Remcon Equipment, the publisher's affiliate, resells vibratory screens. Its vibratory screens page has a short section on screening shredded scrap ahead of magnets and the separator. Source: Remcon Equipment's own page (source 22).

8Questions

How much of a scrapped vehicle ends up as shredder residue?

About a quarter of its weight. Argonne National Laboratory puts the non-metallic material left once the metals are recovered, called shredder residue, at about 25% of a vehicle's weight. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, End-of-life vehicle recycling: state of the art of resource recovery from shredder residue, 2011.

What is Zorba, and how much aluminum does it hold?

Zorba is ReMA's grade for shredded non-ferrous scrap, mostly aluminum, made by eddy current, air separation, flotation or screening after one or more magnets. It is sold by its estimated non-ferrous content: Zorba 90 is about 90% non-ferrous metal, not 90% aluminum. A 2016 study for the Aluminum Association reports that Zorba from the eddy current separator typically holds about 65% aluminum alloy by weight. Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026; Kelly and Apelian for the Aluminum Association, 2016.

Can an X-ray sorter make Twitch from Zorba?

It can make the same split, but check the name with your buyer. ReMA defines Twitch as floated shredder aluminum from wet or dry media separation. A 2016 study for the Aluminum Association says X-ray transmission sorters aim to make the same split dry, by atomic density. This guide calls that dry product comparable to Twitch. Ask your buyer how it will grade a sensor-sorted product. Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026; Kelly and Apelian for the Aluminum Association, 2016.

Can an eddy current separator recover copper wire from shredder residue?

Bare wire in small sizes, on a separator built for it. Eriez says its ultra-high-frequency separator, with a 32-pole eccentric rotor, recovers bare copper wire and other non-ferrous metal down to 2 to 3 mm from shredder residue. Insulated wire goes to sensor sorters: STEINERT's shredder residue chain makes a cable product by multi-sensor sorting. Sources: Eriez, Eddy current separators product page, undated, and brochure RB-780, 2026; STEINERT, Auto shredder residue, undated.

Does steel have to come out before the separator on a shredder line?

Yes. ReMA's Zorba grade requires material that has passed one or more magnets. Eriez's manual, which lists shredder residue among its separator's uses, says the separator is designed to run with minimal ferrous metal in the feed and says magnets should be placed upstream where needed to remove it. This guide follows the separator makers' manuals: magnets go ahead of the separator, and the separator is not relied on to remove steel. Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026; Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015.

Read the aluminum recovery guide Find manufacturers

9Sources

Figures from these sources are paraphrased, not quoted. Manufacturers' pages, brochures and manuals state each maker's own claims; this site has not tested the equipment. Remcon Equipment, Inc. is the publisher's affiliate.

  1. Kelly, S., and Apelian, D. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute), for the Aluminum Association. Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life: A Grave-to-Gate Analysis. 2016. Industry association, commissioned academic study. aluminum.org (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  2. Jody, Daniels, Duranceau, Pomykala and Spangenberger (Argonne National Laboratory). End-of-life vehicle recycling: state of the art of resource recovery from shredder residue, report ANL/ESD/10-8. February 22, 2011. Government; abstract read, as the full report could not be opened. OSTI record 1010492. Read 2026-10-06.
  3. Zevenhoven, R., and Saeed, L. Automotive shredder residue (ASR) and compact disc (CD) waste, report TKK-ENY-14. Helsinki University of Technology, April 2003. Academic report. users.abo.fi (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  4. STEINERT. Auto shredder residue (application page). Undated. Manufacturer. steinertglobal.com, auto shredder residue. Read 2026-10-06.
  5. Duranceau, C., and Spangenberger, J. (Argonne National Laboratory). All Auto Shredding: Evaluation of Automotive Shredder Residue Generated by Shredding Only Vehicles, ANL/ES-C0201801. July 11, 2011. Government. anl.gov (PDF); OSTI record 1031450. Read 2026-10-06.
  6. Recycled Materials Association (ReMA). ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026 edition: Zorba, pp. 11 and 17; Twitch, Tweak and Vesper, p. 11; Zurik, p. 17; Zebra and Zeppelin, p. 16; Ginger, pp. 2 and 7. Trade specification. isrispecs.org (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  7. Eriez. RevX-E eddy current separator installation, operation and maintenance manual, RM-99. April 2015. Manufacturer. eriez.com, RM-99 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  8. Goudsmit Magnetics. What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems (knowledge base). Undated. Manufacturer; its values agree with Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004. goudsmitmagnetics.com, efficiency of eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  9. ReMA. ISRI Specs grade pages: High density (Zebra) and Light density (Zeppelin). Effective July 14, 2022. Trade specification. isrispecs.org, Zebra; isrispecs.org, Zeppelin. Read 2026-10-06.
  10. STEINERT. Induction sorting system (ISS). Undated. Manufacturer. steinertglobal.com, induction sorting system. Read 2026-10-06.
  11. MSS (CP Group). MetalMiner. Undated. Manufacturer. mssoptical.com, MetalMiner. Read 2026-10-06.
  12. TOMRA. Customer story on six FINDER sorters at a US scrap metal recycler. May 1, 2021. Manufacturer, customer story. Checked on tomra.com in a browser, since the site refuses scripted requests. tomra.com, customer story. Read 2026-10-06.
  13. Binder+Co AG. BIVITEC flip-flow screen brochure, and Metal recycling brochure. Undated. Manufacturer. binder-co.com, BIVITEC (PDF); binder-co.com, metal recycling (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  14. General Kinematics. FINGER-SCREEN for metal recovery. Undated. Manufacturer. generalkinematics.com, fines screens. Read 2026-10-06.
  15. STEINERT. EddyC FINES. Undated. Manufacturer. steinertglobal.com, EddyC FINES. Read 2026-10-06.
  16. Eriez. Eddy current separators (product page). Undated. Manufacturer. eriez.com, eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  17. Eriez. Ultra high frequency eddy current separator (brochure). 2016. Manufacturer. eriez.com, UHF brochure (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  18. Eriez. Eddy Current Separators for Nonferrous Recovery, brochure RB-780. September 2026. Manufacturer. eriez.com, RB-780 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  19. Efe, et al. (PNNL and Argonne National Laboratory). Alloy selective optical sorting of mixed post-consumer aluminum scrap streams. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 223, 2025 (accepted manuscript). Government; peer-reviewed. OSTI record 3021470. Read 2026-10-06.
  20. STEINERT. Showcase: Zorba and Twitch sorting with XRF at a US scrap yard. Undated. Manufacturer, case study. steinertglobal.com, showcase. Read 2026-10-06.
  21. STEINERT. Aluminum recycling (application page). Undated. Manufacturer. steinertglobal.com, aluminum recycling. Read 2026-10-06.
  22. Remcon Equipment, Inc., the publisher's affiliate. Its own page, for the affiliate fact in section 7: vibratory screens. Read 2026-10-06.
  23. Recycled Materials Association (ReMA). ReMA's Vesper Specification Highlights Collaborative Achievement in Recycled Materials Industry. August 28, 2025. Trade association. recycledmaterials.org, Vesper. Read 2026-10-06.

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