Problem guide: aluminum and non-ferrous metal
Aluminum scrap grades and what buyers accept
A scrap grade is the shared name, such as Taldon or Zorba, that buyer and seller use for what a load must and must not contain. The buyer's own written spec then adds the rules it checks when the load arrives.
- Aluminum and non-ferrous
- Ferrous
- Fiber
- Glass
- Film
- Other and residue
1How the grades work
ReMA, the Recycled Materials Association (formerly ISRI), publishes the scrap specifications circular. Each grade has a short code name, such as Taldon or Zorba. The circular is free to read as a PDF, and each grade also has its own page on isrispecs.org. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026.
The grades are a shared trading language, not a contract. Buyer and seller may agree variations, and the circular asks that any deviation be agreed and put in writing. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, preface.
Unless a contract says otherwise, the non-ferrous grades also carry ReMA's "Apple" terms. These include a ton of 2,000 lb and a delivery tolerance of up to 3% over or under. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, p. 3.
Buyers check each load when it arrives. One can-sheet mill rates every load and tracks the rating by supplier location. Another asks for each load to be labelled with where it was processed, and keeps cans from MRFs in a class of their own. Sources: Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification, Rev 7; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020.
The short version
Get your buyer's written spec before you set the splitter or write an RFQ. The grade name says what the load must be. The buyer's spec says what it will reject and what it deducts for.
2Can and foil grades
Taldon covers baled used beverage cans (UBC). Taldack, Taldork and Talcred cover the same cans in denser or shredded forms. Talc and Tesla cover other cans and household foil.
| Grade | What it covers | Form and density | Must be free of, or limits |
|---|---|---|---|
| Taldon | Baled used beverage cans | At least 14 lb/ft³. At most 17 lb/ft³ for unflattened cans, 22 lb/ft³ for flattened. Bales at least 30 ft³, within 24 to 40 in × 30 to 52 in × 40 to 84 in, tied with 4 to 6 steel bands or 6 to 10 #13 gauge wires. No skids. | Magnetically separated. No steel, lead, bottle caps, glass, wood, dirt, grease, trash or plastic of any kind. No aluminum other than used beverage cans. Any free lead is grounds for rejection. |
| Taldack | Densified UBC biscuits | Biscuits 35 to 50 lb/ft³, none over 60 lb. Bundles banded with steel straps. No skids. | Magnetically separated. Moisture is among the terms to agree. |
| Taldork | Briquetted UBC | Briquettes at least 50 lb/ft³. No bundle over 4,000 lb. | Magnetically separated. No steel, plastic, glass or dirt. Moisture is among the terms to agree. |
| Talcred | Shredded UBC | 12 to 17 lb/ft³ | Magnetically separated, with the same exclusions as Taldon. No more than 5% fines finer than 4 mesh. |
| Talc | Old aluminum food cans, beverage cans, or both | No form or density set. Excludes foil, tin cans, any other scrap metal, and non-metal items such as plastic bottles, paper and glass. | |
| Tesla | Household foil, foil trays and foil containers in uncoated 1000, 3000 and 8000 series alloys | Baled | No more than 5% organic residue. No laminated foil, iron, paper or plastic. May be anodized. |
Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 8 and 10; ReMA, grade pages on isrispecs.org (Talcred's exclusions). The circular's metric figures for Taldon do not match its inch figures, so only inch values are shown.
Taldon sets no aluminum percentage
The grade lists what must be absent and how the bale is built. It does not say what share of the bale must be aluminum. The buyer judges that when the load arrives (section 4). Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, p. 8.
For a sense of scale, the Aluminum Association puts a typical can bale at about 94% metal, 5% foreign material and under 1% oxides. It adds that recyclers have reported bales as low as 85% metal as contamination has grown. The Association cites a 2018 review that we could not open. Source: Aluminum Association, Four Keys to Circular Recycling: An Aluminum Container Design Guide, 2020, p. 6.
One government study sampled what MRFs actually ship as aluminum. Across 10 samples from five Oregon facilities, the aluminum product was 79.5% beverage cans and 14.6% foil and pet-food cans by weight, with 2.2% steel cans and small amounts of paper, plastic and glass. The data are from 2011, and Oregon has a container deposit. Source: Oregon DEQ, Composition of Commingled Recyclables Before and After Processing, 2011, Table 6.
Under Taldon, every one of those foil and pet-food cans is a non-UBC item. Whether they cost you anything depends on the buyer's spec.
3Shredder grades
Shredded cars, appliances and mixed scrap are sold under a different set of grades. Zorba is the mixed non-ferrous grade. Several aluminum grades carry published caps on other metals and on non-metallics.
| Grade | How it is made | What it is, or its limits |
|---|---|---|
| Zorba | Eddy current, air separation, flotation, screening, or a mix of them. Must have passed one or more magnets. | Mixed non-ferrous metal, mostly aluminum, with copper, lead, magnesium, stainless steel, nickel, tin and zinc in shares the parties agree. Sold as "Zorba" plus the estimated non-ferrous percentage: Zorba 90 is about 90%. May be screened into size ranges. Free of radioactive material, dross and ash. |
| Twitch | Wet or dry media separation. Must be dry. | Free zinc, free magnesium and analytical iron at most 1% each. Non-metallics at most 2%, of which rubber and plastics at most 1%. No air bag canisters or sealed or pressurized items. |
| Tweak | Mechanical or hand separation. Must be dry. | Free zinc at most 4%, free magnesium at most 1%, analytical iron at most 1.5%. Non-metallics at most 5%, of which rubber and plastics at most 1%. |
| Vesper | Wrought aluminum (sheet, extrusion, plate) separated from Zorba or Twitch. Must be dry. Approved July 15, 2025. | Free magnesium and free zinc at most 1% each, analytical iron at most 0.5%, non-metallics at most 1%. |
| Ginger | Mixed shredded cast aluminum, mechanically separated from Zorba and Twitch. Approved April 13, 2026. | Free magnesium, zinc and iron at most 1% each. Non-metallics at most 1%. |
| Zurik | Sensor sorting, such as induction or X-ray. Must have passed magnets. | Mixed non-ferrous metal, mostly stainless steel. Sold by its non-ferrous percentage. |
| Zebra and Zeppelin | Media separation | Zebra is the high-density product: brass, copper, zinc, non-magnetic stainless and copper wire. Zeppelin is the light-density product: thin-gauge aluminum and magnesium. |
Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 2 (Ginger approval), 7 (Ginger), 11 and 17; ReMA, Vesper specification article, 2025 (approval date); ReMA, grade pages on isrispecs.org (Zebra and Zeppelin).
A grade name says how a product is made, not how pure it usually is. For typical make-up, a 2016 study for the Aluminum Association reports that Zorba from the eddy current separator typically holds about 65% aluminum alloy by weight, and that Twitch typically holds 90 to 98%. Source: Kelly and Apelian (WPI) for the Aluminum Association, Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life, 2016.
The same study describes heavy-media plants that float aluminum off Zorba as Twitch while copper, zinc and lead sink as Zebra. It adds that X-ray transmission sorters can make the same split dry, by atomic density. Source: Kelly and Apelian, Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life, 2016, Appendix A.
ReMA defines Twitch by media separation. A dry X-ray product can be comparable to Twitch, but ask your buyer how it will grade that product before you plan a line around it.
How a shredder line makes Zorba, and the sorters that split it further: Non-ferrous recovery from shredder residue and Zorba. Zurik, and the wrought and cast split behind Vesper and Ginger, from the sorting side: Grades made by sensor sorting.
4What can mills check
Two can-sheet producers publish used-can specs: Novelis, for North America, and Tri-Arrows Aluminum with Logan Aluminum. Both go further than Taldon. [Confirm with both mills that these specs are current before publication: Logan's is dated April 2020, and the Novelis file July 2021]
| Check | Novelis North America, Rev 7 | Tri-Arrows / Logan, 2020 |
|---|---|---|
| Before shipment | Cans mixed with other material must be magnetically separated. | All cans must be magnetically separated before baling, wherever they were processed. Each load is labelled with where it was processed. Cans from MRFs ("UBC-MRF") are a class of their own. |
| On arrival | Every load is inspected and given a quality rating, tracked by supplier location. | Every load is inspected for moisture, oil, dirt, garbage, plastic, glass, non-aluminum contaminants, aluminum fines and safety hazards. |
| If it fails | A defective material report, and the load can be rejected. | The load can be downgraded or rejected. |
| Aluminum food cans | Accepted up to 10% of each bale by volume, pet food cans included, if clean, dry and label-free. | Food cans, steel cans and other non-beverage cans are grounds for downgrade or rejection. |
| Safety rejections | Rejected at once for safety items: needles and medical waste, pressurized aerosol cans, ammunition and explosives, butane lighters, fertilizers and oxidizers, containers of liquid, propane or gasoline containers, free lead, radioactive sources, unidentifiable material, lead-acid batteries and infestation. | Rejected at once for safety items: butane lighters, needles and medical waste, ammunition and explosives, vessels that may hold fuel or other liquid, fertilizers and oxidizers, closed containers such as aerosol cans, hazardous chemicals, free lead, radioactive sources, unidentifiable material, infestation, lead-acid batteries and excess hydrocarbons. Any trigger of the radiation detector means rejection. |
Sources: Novelis, NNA Recycling: UBC Product Quality Specification, REF-04146 Rev 7, sections 1.0, 2.1 and 2.3; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, Used Beverage Cans (UBC) Specification, 2020, sections 1, 6, 9, 11 and 12. Moisture and bale density are in section 5; named contaminants are in section 6.
The two specs disagree on food cans. If your line bales pet-food or other food cans with beverage cans, the buyer decides whether that is allowed, capped or a downgrade.
5Moisture and bale density
Moisture
Taldon sets no moisture limit. Taldack and Taldork list moisture among the terms to agree. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, p. 8.
Both mills test a sample from every load. Above 4% moisture, the load may be rejected, or its weight reduced by the tested moisture minus 2%. Both advise against storing or processing cans outdoors. Sources: Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification, Rev 7, section 2.5; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020, section 8.
| Step | Arithmetic | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Tested moisture | From the load's sample | 6%, above the 4% threshold |
| Weight deduction | 6% − 2% | 4% of the load's weight |
| Or instead | The spec also allows the load to be rejected. | |
Bale density
The density windows differ between the grade and each mill. Both mills accept denser standard bales than Taldon's printed maximum, and one Novelis plant takes a lower window.
| Product | ReMA grade | Novelis North America | Tri-Arrows / Logan |
|---|---|---|---|
| Standard bale | Taldon: 14 to 17 unflattened, up to 22 flattened. At least 30 ft³. | 14 to 25 at most plants; 10 to 20 at Greensboro. At least 30 ft³, with at most six bands or six wires. | 14 to 25 for a standard (Taldon) bale; 25 to 30 for a high-density bale. |
| Biscuits | Taldack: 35 to 50, none over 60 lb. | 35 to 50, none over 50 lb. | 35 to 55. |
Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, p. 8; Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification, Rev 7, sections 4.0 and 4.1; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020, sections 6 and 7.
The Logan spec also says it does not accept briquettes denser than 55 lb/ft³. Source: Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020, section 7.
These are densities of compressed product. Do not use them as the bulk density of loose material on a belt. The belt feed-rate calculator needs the loose figure.
6Contamination
A can bale is judged against two lists: what the grade excludes and what the buyer's spec rejects. This table sets them side by side, by material.
| Material | ReMA can grades | Mill specs |
|---|---|---|
| Steel and iron | Taldon, Taldack, Taldork and Talcred must be magnetically separated. Taldon excludes steel. | Both mills list iron and steel. Logan also names steel cans. |
| Foil, pie pans and food cans | Taldon takes no aluminum other than beverage cans. Foil has its own grade, Tesla. | Both mills list foil and pie pans. Novelis caps food cans at 10% of a bale by volume; Logan downgrades or rejects for food cans. |
| Lead and other non-ferrous metal | Taldon excludes lead. Any free lead is grounds for rejection. | Both mills list brass, bronze and other non-ferrous metals. At both, free lead and lead-acid batteries mean rejection at once. |
| Plastic, including sleeves and caps | Taldon excludes plastic of any kind, plastic cans included. | Both mills list loose plastic and plastic built into the can: label sleeves, plastic caps, screw tops and widget balls. |
| Glass, rocks, dirt and sand | Taldon excludes glass and dirt. | Both mills list rocks, dirt, sand and glass. |
| Paper and wood | Taldon excludes wood and trash. | Both mills list paper and wood. |
Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, p. 8; Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification, Rev 7, sections 2.1 to 2.3; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020, sections 9 and 11. Both mills also list batteries, rubber and insulated beverage containers.
Why plastic matters to the buyer
The Aluminum Association explains why. Plastic labels, shrink sleeves and plastic lids strain shredding and de-lacquering. They add combustible dust, which is a fire and explosion risk, and they can ignite during de-lacquering. PVC also raises chlorine emissions. Source: Aluminum Association, Four Keys to Circular Recycling, 2020, pp. 6 and 7.
The same guide says a sleeve, label or lid may lower a can's apparent conductivity, so an eddy current separator may capture it less well. An optical sorter may read a PET-sleeved can as PET. The guide gives no measurement, and a 2020 consultant report for the can makers says data on sleeved cans are limited. Sources: Aluminum Association, Four Keys to Circular Recycling, 2020, pp. 4 and 10; Gershman, Brickner & Bratton for the Can Manufacturers Institute, Aluminum Beverage Can: Driver of the U.S. Recycling System, 2020, p. 7.
Why loads are downgraded on real lines
[The most common reasons loads are downgraded or rejected, anonymised, from the shop records of Remcon Equipment, the publisher's affiliate]
7From line settings to grade
The grade rules reach back into the line. Each row pairs a choice on the line with the rule it serves.
| Line choice | What it changes | Grade or buyer rule it serves |
|---|---|---|
| Magnet ahead of the eddy current separator | Takes steel out before the separator | Taldon, Taldack, Taldork and Talcred ask for magnetically separated material. Zorba and Zurik must have passed one or more magnets. Logan asks for it on all cans before baling, and Novelis on cans mixed with other material. |
| Screening into size ranges | Gives each separator a narrower size range | Zorba may be sold screened into size ranges. Talcred allows no more than 5% fines finer than 4 mesh. |
| Splitter position | Trades recovery against purity | Taldon accepts beverage cans only. Twitch, Tweak, Vesper and Ginger cap non-metallics at 1 to 5%. |
| A second splitter vane | Gives two non-ferrous cuts from one separator | In shredder plants, aluminum recovered by controlling throw distance at the separator is known as "long throw" aluminum, or Tweak. |
| Quality control station on the product | Pulls items the buyer does not accept before baling | Food cans past the buyer's limit, foil, pie pans, plastic, steel and batteries are on the mills' lists. |
| Dry storage and processing | Keeps moisture down | Above 4%, both mills may reject or deduct weight, and both advise against outdoor storage. |
| Baler setting | Sets bale density, size and tying | Taldon: 14 to 17 lb/ft³ unflattened, 22 flattened, at least 30 ft³. The mills' standard windows run to 25 lb/ft³. |
Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026; Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification, Rev 7; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020; Industrial Magnetics, ECS Service Manual (two cuts); Kelly and Apelian, Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life, 2016 ("long throw").
Who publishes this. Recyclers Guide is published by [LLC name], an affiliate of Remcon Equipment, Inc. Remcon designs and builds conveyors and eddy current separator systems around rotors or complete separators made by others, builds overhead magnet units, magnetic head pulleys and trommels, resells screens and feeders, and integrates equipment discussed on this site.
Removing steel first
Taldon, Taldack, Taldork, Talcred, Zorba and Zurik all call for magnetic separation. Separator makers' own manuals also put a magnet ahead of the eddy current separator, to protect the machine. Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 8, 11 and 17; Industrial Magnetics, ECS Service Manual; Eriez, RevX-E Eddy Current Separator manual, 2015.
Setting the splitter for a grade
The splitter is the main day-to-day control. Move it toward the rotor and more weakly thrown metal lands in the product, with more non-metal beside it. The aluminum recovery guide explains the trade.
Small moves matter. In plant and lab tests on 1 to 6 mm incinerator bottom ash, a 10 mm shift in splitter distance can change metal recovery by about 10% and grade by about 18%. Those were ash fines, not cans, but they show how sensitive the setting can be. Source: Rahman and Bakker, Sensor-based control in eddy current separation of incinerator bottom ash, Waste Management, 2013.
Set the splitter against the buyer's spec. Then check both streams after each change: the metal that reaches the residue, and the non-metal that reaches the product.
Quality control on the product
Some MRFs staff a quality control station on the non-ferrous product to pull non-UBC items before baling. Others sell the separator's product as it is when it is clean enough, or when a cleaner bale would not pay for the labor. Source: Gershman, Brickner & Bratton for the Can Manufacturers Institute, Aluminum Beverage Can: Driver of the U.S. Recycling System, 2020, pp. 4 and 5.
The buyer's lists say what that station is for. In Oregon's 2011 sampling, foil and pet-food cans were about 15% of the aluminum product by weight. Source: Oregon DEQ, Composition of Commingled Recyclables Before and After Processing, 2011, Table 6.
8Aluminum in other grades
A can the line misses does not disappear. It ends up in another product, where that product's buyer counts it as contamination.
- Glass cullet. ReMA's cullet grades are to be free of non-ferrous metal, apart from negligible unavoidable amounts, and its furnace-ready grades list non-ferrous metal as prohibitive. Its MRF glass grade allows up to 35% non-glass residue, closures included. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 28 to 31.
- In the glass furnace. Aluminum reacts with silica in the melt and forms metallic silicon spheres, which become inclusions in the glass. EU end-of-waste criteria cap non-ferrous metal in cullet at 60 ppm. Sources: EU Joint Research Centre, End-of-Waste Criteria for Glass Cullet, 2011; Commission Regulation (EU) No 1179/2012, Annex I.
- PET and HDPE bottle bales. Aluminum cans are an allowed low-level contaminant, capped at 2% by weight per contaminant type. "Other metal" is not allowed. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 41 to 44.
- Paper bales. ReMA's paper grades cap prohibitive materials, at 1% in OCC and 2% in mixed paper, without naming cans. In Oregon's 2011 study about 22% of cans left in newspaper bales, and the state notes that cans shipped with paper end up disposed of. Sources: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 34 to 38; Oregon DEQ, Composition of Commingled Recyclables Before and After Processing, 2011, Table 8.
9Questions
Does Taldon set a minimum aluminum content?
No. ReMA's Taldon grade for baled used beverage cans sets bale density, size and tying, asks for magnetically separated material, and accepts beverage cans only, free of steel, lead, plastic, glass, dirt and trash. It gives no aluminum percentage. Each buyer grades the load when it arrives. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026.
What makes a can mill reject a load?
Both can-sheet mills reject a load at once for safety items such as aerosol cans, free lead, lead-acid batteries and radioactive sources. Both specs also list plastic, including label sleeves and plastic tops, along with foil, pie pans, paper, wood, rocks, dirt, sand, glass, steel, brass, bronze, batteries and excess moisture among reasons to reject or downgrade a load. Sources: Novelis, UBC Product Quality Specification REF-04146 Rev 7, sections 2.1 and 2.2; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, UBC Specification, 2020, sections 9 and 11.3.
How much moisture can a load of cans carry?
Taldon itself sets no moisture limit. Two can-sheet mills test a sample from each load. Above 4% moisture they may reject it, or deduct weight equal to the tested moisture minus 2%. Both advise against storing or processing cans outdoors. Sources: ReMA, July 2026; Novelis REF-04146 Rev 7; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, 2020.
What is the difference between Zorba and Twitch?
Zorba is shredded non-ferrous scrap, mostly aluminum, made by eddy current, air separation, flotation or screening after one or more magnets. It is sold by its estimated non-ferrous percentage, as in Zorba 90. Twitch is shredder aluminum from wet or dry media separation, capped at 1% each for free zinc, free magnesium and analytical iron, and 2% for non-metallics. Source: ReMA, ReMA's ISRI Specifications, July 2026.
Can food cans and foil go in a can bale?
Not under Taldon, which accepts no aluminum other than beverage cans. One mill takes clean, dry, label-free aluminum food cans up to 10% of a bale by volume; the other treats food cans as grounds for downgrade or rejection. Foil has its own ReMA grade, Tesla. Ask your buyer before you change what goes in the bale. Sources: ReMA, July 2026; Novelis REF-04146 Rev 7; Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum, 2020.
10Sources
Every source below was read on 2026-10-06. We quote short phrases only and paraphrase the rest.
- Recycled Materials Association (ReMA). ReMA's ISRI Specifications: Guide for Nonferrous, Ferrous, Inbound Curbside Recyclables, Glass Cullet, Paper Stock, Plastic, Tires, Electronics. July 2026. Industry association. https://www.isrispecs.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/2026-July-ReMA_ISRI_Specifications.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- ReMA. ISRI Specs grade pages: the aluminum index, Talcred, Zebra (high density) and Zeppelin (light density). Industry association. https://www.isrispecs.org/orpheus_resource_categories/aluminum/; https://www.isrispecs.org/orpheus_resource/shredded-aluminum-used-beverage-can-ubc-scrap/; https://www.isrispecs.org/orpheus_resource/high-density/; https://www.isrispecs.org/orpheus_resource/light-density/ (read 2026-10-06)
- ReMA. ReMA's Vesper Specification Highlights Collaborative Achievement in Recycled Materials Industry. 2025. Industry association. https://www.recycledmaterials.org/remas-vesper-specification-highlights-collaborative-achievement-in-recycled-materials-industry/ (read 2026-10-06)
- Novelis. NNA Recycling: UBC Product Quality Specification, REF-04146, Rev 7. File dated July 2021, posted May 2026. Can-sheet producer and can buyer. https://novelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/NNA-UBC-Spec_v7_REF-04146.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Tri-Arrows Aluminum and Logan Aluminum. Used Beverage Cans (UBC) Specification. April 28, 2020. Can-sheet producer and can buyer. https://www.loganrawmaterials.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/UBC-Printable-PDF.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Aluminum Association. Four Keys to Circular Recycling: An Aluminum Container Design Guide. September 2020. Industry association; its bale-composition figure cites Capuzzi and Timelli, Metals, 2018, which we could not open. https://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/AA_ContainerDesignGuide.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Gershman, Brickner & Bratton, for the Can Manufacturers Institute. Aluminum Beverage Can: Driver of the U.S. Recycling System. June 23, 2020. Commissioned industry report. https://www.cancentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/GBB-Report-Aluminum-Can-Drives-U.S.-Recycling-System-Final-2020-0623.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. Composition of Commingled Recyclables Before and After Processing, report 11-LQ-014. March 2011. Government. https://www.oregon.gov/deq/FilterDocs/CommingledRecyclablesBAProcessing.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Kelly, S., and Apelian, D. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute), for the Aluminum Association. Automotive Aluminum Recycling at End of Life: A Grave-to-Gate Analysis. 2016. Commissioned academic study. https://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/Final-Report-Automotive-Aluminum-Recycling-at-End-of-Life-A-Grave-to-Gate-Analysis.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Industrial Magnetics, Inc. ECS Service Manual, Endless Belt (manual 900505). Undated. Manufacturer. https://assets.magnetics.com/assets/files/manuals/900505_ECS_Service_Manual_Endless_Belt.pdf (read 2026-10-06) Industrial Magnetics supplies eddy current separators and magnets to Remcon Equipment, the publisher's affiliate.
- Eriez. RevX-E Eddy Current Separator installation, operation and maintenance manual, RM-99. April 2015. Manufacturer. https://www.eriez.com/Documents/Literature/IOMs/Metals-Recycling/RM-99-Eriez-RevXE-Eddy-Current-Separator-IOM.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- Rahman, M. A., and Bakker, M. C. M. Sensor-based control in eddy current separation of incinerator bottom ash. Waste Management 33(6), 2013. Peer-reviewed; abstract read. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23490354/ (read 2026-10-06)
- European Commission Joint Research Centre. End-of-Waste Criteria for Glass Cullet: Technical Proposals, EUR 25220 EN. 2011. Government. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC68281/jrc68281.pdf (read 2026-10-06)
- European Commission. Commission Regulation (EU) No 1179/2012, Annex I. December 10, 2012. Government (regulation). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eur/2012/1179/annex/I (read 2026-10-06)
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