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Technology reference

Eddy current separation

An eddy current separator is a short conveyor with a fast-spinning rotor of alternating permanent magnets inside a non-metallic shell at its head; the rotor throws conductive non-ferrous metal, such as aluminum, forward over a splitter, while everything else drops off the end of the belt.

MaturityMature Last of four steps: experimental, emerging, proven, mature. Made by many manufacturers.

By [author name, role and employer] · Technical review by [reviewer name, role and employer] · Updated

  • Aluminum and non-ferrous
  • Ferrous
  • Fiber
  • Glass
  • Film
  • Other and residue

1How it works

The separator has two rotating parts at its head. The outer shell, made of a non-metallic material so the field passes through it, turns with the belt. Inside it, a rotor carrying permanent magnets of alternating polarity spins much faster than the shell, on its own drive. (Source: Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015, and REA manual SM-780-1, 2010.)

As a conductive piece passes over the head, the rapidly reversing field induces eddy currents in it. Those currents set up a magnetic field of their own that opposes the rotor's, so the piece is pushed away from the head and thrown forward, past a splitter, into the product chute. Glass, plastic and paper feel nothing and fall off the end of the belt on a normal path. (Source: IFE, Eddy current separators brochure, 2026.)

Eddy current separator head, cross-section A belt runs over a non-metallic shell. Inside the shell a rotor carries magnets of alternating polarity and spins much faster than the shell. An aluminum piece leaving the belt is thrown forward over a splitter; glass, plastic and paper drop close to the head; a steel piece is pulled toward the shell underneath. N S N S N S N S N S N S N S N S Everything else Non-ferrous product 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Eddy current separator head, cross-section A belt runs over a non-metallic shell. Inside the shell a rotor carries magnets of alternating polarity and spins much faster than the shell. An aluminum piece leaving the belt is thrown forward over a splitter; glass, plastic and paper drop close to the head; a steel piece is pulled toward the shell underneath. N S N S N S N S N S N S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
  1. 1Belt. Carries a single layer of mixed material toward the head.
  2. 2Shell. Non-metallic, so the field passes through. Turns with the belt.
  3. 3Rotor. Permanent magnets of alternating polarity: N, S, N, S.
  4. 4Rotor drive. Spins much faster than the shell, so the field under each piece reverses rapidly.
  5. 5Eddy currents. Induced in a conductive piece; their field opposes the rotor's and pushes the piece away.
  6. 6Aluminum is thrown forward, over the splitter, into the non-ferrous product.
  7. 7Non-conductors drop off the end of the belt: glass, plastic, paper.
  8. 8Splitter. Divides the two streams. Its position trades recovery against purity.
  9. 9Steel is attracted, not thrown. It clings to the belt over the rotor until the field lets go under the head. Held in the field, it heats.
Figure 1. The head of an eddy current separator, cross-section, drawn with a concentric rotor (see Rotor layouts below). Schematic, not to scale. Pole counts vary by model: 8 on one maker's can rotor, 38 on another's fines rotor. Sources: Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated; Goudsmit, EddyFines 1500 mm, undated; steel path, Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004.

What sets the throw

How hard a piece is thrown depends mostly on four things:

  • Conductivity relative to density. Throw follows a metal's electrical conductivity divided by its density. On that ratio aluminum scores about 13.7 and copper 6.7, so aluminum is thrown farther; section 5 gives the ratio for each metal. Cast aluminum is thrown a shorter distance than aluminum sheet. (Sources: Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated, whose values agree with Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated.)
  • Size. Larger pieces carry larger currents. For small pieces the push grows with about the fifth power of size while the weight grows with the cube, so below about 5 mm friction takes over on a conventional separator. (Sources: Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004; Šyc et al., 2020.)
  • Shape. Flat, folded and round pieces of the same metal land in different places. Wire carries only small eddy currents, and small irregular pieces fly less predictably. (Sources: Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated; Ruan and Xu, 2012; Wagner Magnete, Non-ferrous separator, undated; Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated.)
  • Distance from the magnets. The push weakens with distance from the rotor, so separator belts are thin: from 0.05 to 0.12 in (about 1.3 to 3 mm) in one maker's manual. (Sources: Hader et al., 2024; Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015.)

Smallest piece size

Each model has its own lower limit. The table lists what makers state for some of their models, from coarser to finer.

Smallest piece size makers state, by model (each maker's own figure; ask for the feed size range behind it)
Maker and modelRotor layout, as the maker states itSmallest piece stated
Bunting ECOConcentric20 mm in its model table; the FAQ on the same page says above 25 mm
Bunting HICConcentric10 mm
Bunting HIEEccentric3 mm
Eriez UHFEccentric2 to 3 mm
Bunting HIFEEccentric1 mm
STEINERT EddyC FINESEccentric0.5 mm (range 0.5 to 10 mm)
Goudsmit EddyFinesEccentricAbout 0.5 mm
SGM BVISConcentric0.2 mm

Sources: Bunting, Eddy current separators (model table and FAQ), undated; Eriez, Eddy current separators product page, undated, and UHF brochure, 2016; STEINERT, EddyC FINES, undated; Goudsmit, EddyFines 1500 mm and EddyFines eddy current separators, undated; SGM, Eddy current separators and BVIS model, undated. All read 2026-10-06.

Rotor layout alone may not set the limit: SGM says it builds concentric rotors, and its BVIS, a concentric model, is listed down to 0.2 mm. Treat every figure here as the maker's claim for its own test material. (Sources: SGM, Eddy current separators, undated; SGM, BVIS model, undated.)

Feed preparation matters as much as the model. STEINERT asks that the largest piece in its fines machine's feed be no more than three times the smallest. (Source: STEINERT, EddyC FINES, undated.)

Fines separators, how to prepare their feed, and other routes for metal too fine for them: Recovering fine non-ferrous metal. Splitting the feed into size fractions: Screening the feed into size fractions before separation.

Rotor layouts

Two layouts are common. In a concentric rotor the magnets sit centred in the shell, so the field surrounds the whole head. In an eccentric rotor the magnet assembly is offset toward the discharge, so the field is concentrated where pieces leave the belt; on several machines the operator can move it. (Sources: Bunting, Eddy current separators, undated; Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015; STEINERT, EddyC FINES, undated; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated.)

Makers disagree on which layout suits fine material and on what each does with stray steel. Concentric and eccentric rotors sets out each maker's claim.

Because makers disagree, test with your own material. Bunting advises a test because waste varies in shape and size. (Source: Bunting, Maximising non-ferrous metal separation, 2019.)

Remcon Equipment, the publisher's affiliate, supplies separators with both layouts and says on its own site when it uses each. That is one builder's practice, not a finding of this guide: how the publisher's affiliate builds one.

Steel has to come out before the separator

Steel is attracted to the rotor, not thrown. Industrial Magnetics' manual says steel trapped in the field superheats and can permanently weaken the rotor's magnets, and its warranty excludes this "ferrous burnout". Eriez's manual says stray steel left on the belt while the rotor coasts can heat up and damage the belt and rotor.

Both manuals call for magnets upstream. Industrial Magnetics advises at least one magnet ahead of the separator (a drum, a magnetic head pulley or a cross-belt magnet) and notes that more than one lowers the risk, since no magnet removes all steel. Eriez designs its eccentric separator to run with a minimum of steel in the feed, and puts magnets upstream where needed. (Sources: Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated; Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015.)

This guide follows the separator makers' manuals: magnets go ahead of the separator, and the separator is not relied on to remove steel.

2Rotor speed, belt speed and throw

Rotor speed and the number of poles together set how fast the field alternates under a piece. Fines machines push both up: one maker's fines rotor alternates the field at up to 1.3 kHz, at up to 4,000 rpm. (Sources: Bunge, Recovery of metals from waste incinerator bottom ash, OST, 2019; STEINERT, EddyC FINES, undated.)

Faster alternation pushes conductive pieces harder, and small pieces need more poles turning faster. The path of a non-conductor does not change. Move the slider to see the shape of the effect. (Sources: Cao et al., 2022; Bunting, Maximising non-ferrous metal separation, 2019.)

Illustrative: shapes only, no real speeds or distances Illustrative throw paths at the selected rotor speed Paths of an aluminum piece, a denser copper piece and a non-metal piece leaving the belt. Residue Non-ferrous product
  • Aluminum piece
  • Copper piece, same size, denser
  • Glass or other non-metal
SlowerFaster

Rotor speed 3 of 5. The aluminum piece clears the splitter and lands in the product. The denser copper piece falls short and is lost to the residue. The non-metal path does not change.

Figure 2. How rotor speed changes the throw of conductive pieces, qualitatively. Real throw also depends on belt speed, piece size and shape, and splitter position. Past a point, more speed adds little and can wear the rotor; makers set a design speed (see below). Ask whether a manufacturer can run a sample of your material.

More speed is not always better. Bunting reports that throw rises with rotor speed to a peak and then holds or falls, that higher speed wears bearings, and that on its concentric design throw gains little above 3,000 rpm. Industrial Magnetics warns that running a rotor above its design speed can cause vibration, irreversible rotor damage and bearing failure, and does not always improve recovery. (Sources: Bunting, 5 key eddy current separator operating parameters, 2020; Bunting, Eddy current separator rotor speed review, 2018; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated.)

So rotor speed is usually set once. When a separator is commissioned, it is belt speed, splitter position and burden depth that get tuned. (Sources: Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated; Bunting, Eddy current separator rotor speed review, 2018.)

Belt speed changes the path of everything on the belt. A faster belt spreads the same feed thinner and throws all material farther, metal and non-metal alike. In two peer-reviewed studies, on crushed toner cartridges and crushed refrigerator cabinets, the gap between the rotor's surface speed and the feed speed was a key setting: a wider gap helped, and a faster feed lowered separation. (Sources: Bunting, 5 key eddy current separator operating parameters, 2020; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated; Ruan and Xu, 2012; Ruan et al., 2017.)

Some machines run the belt at a fixed speed; on others a drive sets it. Ask which, and over what range. (Sources: Eriez, REA manual SM-780-1, 2010; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated.)

3When it fits, and when it doesn't

It fits when

  • The target is aluminum or another light, conductive metal.
  • Ferrous metal is removed upstream.
  • The feed can be spread into one layer across the belt. A deeper layer lowers both recovery and purity.
  • The size range reaching the separator is controlled. Advanced ash plants screen into 6 to 9 size fractions and tune a separator to each.

Look elsewhere when

  • The target is stainless steel, which responds weakly. Ash plants, for example, use induction sensor sorters for it, and ReMA defines its stainless-rich grade, Zurik, as sensor-sorted. Some separators offer an optional third cut for stainless.
  • You need one non-ferrous metal separated from another to a high purity. Some separators can make a second non-ferrous cut. For a clean split by metal, some sensor-based sorters read what each piece is made of.
  • The metal is very fine. Bunting points to electrostatic separation for conductive metal from about 4 mm down to 45 µm. Other routes for fine metal: Recovering fine non-ferrous metal.
  • The feed is wet and sticky. Moisture makes pieces stick to each other and to the belt. The sources read give no moisture level at which a dry separator starts to struggle; ask the maker.
  • The metal is locked inside other material, such as mineral clumps in incinerator ash. Crushing frees it first.
  • The feed arrives in deep surges and there is no room to meter it.

Sources: Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated (one layer, deeper layer, two-cut splitter); Šyc et al., 2020 (size fractions, stainless, crushing); ReMA, ISRI Specifications, July 2026, pp. 15 and 17 (Zurik); IFE, Eddy current separators brochure, 2026 (third cut for stainless, copper-lead split); Efe et al., PNNL and Argonne, 2025 (sensors that read composition); Bunting, Eddy current versus electrostatic separation, 2020 (fine metal); Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated (moisture). Ferrous: the manuals cited in section 1.

4What drives size and cost

We do not publish prices. These are the items that move a quote. Ask each manufacturer to price them separately, so quotes can be compared line by line. How makers size a separator on your material, and the capacities and widths they publish: Sizing an eddy current separator.

Size and cost drivers (no prices: what moves a quote, and what to tell the manufacturer)
DriverWhy it mattersWhat to tell the manufacturer
Belt widthWidth sets how much material can be spread in one layer at a given belt speed. One maker's published maximums run from 2 to 20 t/h per metre of width, depending on the material, so width cannot be read off tonnage alone.Your feed-rate range, your material and the burden depth you can accept.
Rotor layoutConcentric or eccentric changes where the field acts and how the machine handles stray steel (section 1).How much steel may get past your magnets, and the size range you need to recover.
Magnet assemblyMagnet material, number of poles and depth of field set the size range the rotor suits: larger pieces need a deeper field with fewer poles, smaller pieces a shallower field with more poles. Magnet material alone changes the throw: one maker's typical splitter gap for cans is about 12 in on ferrite rotors and 20 to 24 in on rare earth rotors.The size range you need to recover.
Speeds and drivesRotor speed is usually set once, at a design speed that one maker warns against exceeding. Belt speed is fixed on some machines and set by a drive on others.Whether you will run more than one size fraction. Ask whether each speed is fixed or adjustable, and over what range.
Shell and wear partsThe shell must be non-metallic and is a wear part. Makers use composite, ceramic-tiled, carbon fiber and coated shells, and one maker's manual says to keep a spare.How abrasive the material is.
Feeder and splitterA vibratory feeder and an adjustable splitter are often quoted as separate items.What feeds the separator today and how you want to adjust the split.
Conveyors, chutes and controlsInfeed, outfeed, chutes, dust control and controls integration are often quoted separately. Ask which are in scope.Which of these are in scope, and who integrates them.
Guarding and accessGuarding, dust containment and safe access to adjust the splitter.Site conditions and maintenance access.

Sources: Bunting, Eddy current separators, undated (capacity maximums, coated shell); Bunting, Maximising non-ferrous metal separation, 2019 (field depth and poles); Eriez, REA manual SM-780-1, 2010 (splitter gaps, belt speed, ceramic tiles, optional feeder); Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015 (composite shell); Eriez, UHF brochure, 2016 (carbon fiber shell); Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated (design speed, spare shell). All read 2026-10-06.

5Materials

How each material responds to the rotor follows from its conductivity, density and magnetism. The ratio in the table is conductivity divided by density, in units of 10³ m²/Ω·kg.

Materials compatibility (qualitative, from the physics above; not a measured result)
MaterialResponse to the rotorWhy
Aluminum cans, whole or flattenedStrongHigh conductivity, low density: a ratio of about 13.7.
Other aluminum: extrusion, cast, shredStrong to moderateAlloy, size and shape all change the throw. Cast aluminum is thrown a shorter distance than sheet.
CopperModerateConducts well but is dense, a ratio of about 6.7, so it is thrown a shorter distance than aluminum of the same size.
Brass and zincWeak to moderateLess conductive than copper, and still dense: about 1.8 for brass and 2.4 for zinc.
LeadWeakA poor conductor, and very dense: about 0.42.
WireWeak (reported)Wire carries only small eddy currents and flies less predictably. One fines model is sold to recover bare copper wire down to 2 to 3 mm.
Stainless steel, common gradesLittle or noneA low ratio, about 0.18. Ash plants sort it with induction sensors instead.
Steel and ironKeep outAttracted, not thrown. Held in the field, it overheats and can damage the belt, shell and magnets. Remove upstream.
GlassNoneNot conductive. Drops off the end of the belt.
Paper and cardboardNoneNot conductive. Wind at the head can move light pieces.
Plastic filmNoneNot conductive. Wind at the head can move light pieces.
Plastic containersNoneNot conductive.

"Reported" means the sources describe wire's weak response but give no measured result. Sources: Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated (ratios, whose values agree with Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004; wind, for paper and film); Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated (cast and sheet; alloy, size and shape; steel); Wagner Magnete, Non-ferrous separator, undated (wire); Eriez, UHF brochure, 2016 (bare copper wire); Šyc et al., 2020 (stainless); Eriez, RevX-E manual RM-99, 2015 (steel); IFE, Eddy current separators brochure, 2026 (non-conductors). All read 2026-10-06.

6Compare

This table compares what each technology separates by, what it targets, what it cannot do, and what it needs from the feed. We have not tested the equipment discussed.

At a glance (stated criteria, not a ranking)
CriterionEddy currentMagneticSensor-based
Separates byConductivity relative to densityMagnetic attractionWhat a sensor reads
Main targetsAluminum, other non-ferrous metalSteel and ironPlastics and fiber at MRFs; metals by composition
CannotTolerate steel; recover stainless or very fine metal wellLift non-ferrous metalAlways read coated metal: some surface sensors misread painted, dusty or oily pieces
Needs from the feedOne layer, ferrous removedA burden shallow enough for the fieldPieces spread apart, in a screened size band

Sources: eddy current, sections 1 and 3 of this page; magnetic, Eriez, Suspended permanent magnets manual SM-305, 2012 (burden and suspension height); sensor-based, GBB for the Can Manufacturers Institute, 2020 (MRF sorters), Efe et al., PNNL and Argonne, 2025 (composition, coatings), TOMRA and Metso Outotec, Sensor-based ore sorting, 2022 (feed). All read 2026-10-06.

Which one fits your stream: see section 3.

Side by side: eddy current against magnetic separation; eddy current against sensor-based sorting.

Who publishes this. Recyclers Guide is published by [LLC name], an affiliate of Remcon Equipment, Inc. Remcon designs and builds conveyors and eddy current separator systems around rotors or complete separators made by others, builds overhead magnet units, magnetic head pulleys and trommels, resells screens and feeders, and integrates equipment discussed on this site.

7Questions

What does an eddy current separator separate?

It separates conductive non-ferrous metal, mainly aluminum, from non-conductive material such as glass, plastic and paper. It works on pieces fed in one layer, in a controlled size range. Sources: IFE, Eddy current separators brochure, 2026; Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated.

What is the smallest piece an eddy current separator can recover?

It depends on the model. Makers state lower limits of 10 or 20 mm for some coarser models and 3 mm, 1 mm or 0.5 mm for fines models, and one maker lists a model down to 0.2 mm. Peer-reviewed studies find that conventional separators lose effectiveness below about 5 mm. Ask each maker for the limit of the model it offers, and for the feed size range behind that figure. Sources: the makers in the size table in section 1; Settimo, Bevilacqua and Rem, 2004; Šyc et al., 2020.

Does a faster rotor always recover more?

No. Bunting reports that throw rises with rotor speed to a peak and then holds or falls. Industrial Magnetics warns that running a rotor above its design speed can damage the rotor and its bearings, and does not always improve recovery. Rotor speed is usually set once; at commissioning it is belt speed, splitter position and burden depth that get tuned. Sources: Bunting, 5 key eddy current separator operating parameters, 2020; Bunting, Eddy current separator rotor speed review, 2018; Industrial Magnetics, manual 900505, undated.

Does an eddy current separator recover stainless steel?

Mostly not. Common stainless grades have a conductivity-to-density ratio of about 0.18, against about 13.7 for aluminum, so they barely respond. Ash plants, for example, use induction sensor sorters for stainless steel, though some separators offer an optional third cut for it. Sources: Goudsmit, What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems, undated; Šyc et al., 2020; IFE, Eddy current separators brochure, 2026.

Read the aluminum recovery guide Find manufacturers

8Sources

Every figure on this page comes from one of these sources. Manufacturers' pages and manuals state each maker's own claims. Remcon Equipment, Inc. is the publisher's affiliate.

  1. Bunge, R. Recovery of metals from waste incinerator bottom ash. UMTEC, OST Eastern Switzerland University of Applied Sciences, 2019. ost.ch (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  2. Bunting. Eddy current separators (product page, model table and FAQ). Undated. buntingmagnetics.com, eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  3. Bunting. 5 key eddy current separator operating parameters. 2020. buntingmagnetics.com, operating parameters. Read 2026-10-06.
  4. Bunting. Eddy current separator rotor speed review. November 13, 2018. buntingmagnetics.com, rotor speed. Read 2026-10-06.
  5. Bunting. Eddy current versus electrostatic separation. 2020. buntingmagnetics.com, eddy current versus electrostatic. Read 2026-10-06.
  6. Bunting. Maximising non-ferrous metal separation. 2019. buntingmagnetics.com, maximising non-ferrous separation. Read 2026-10-06.
  7. Cao, B., et al. Effects of particle size on the separation efficiency in a rotary-drum eddy current separator. Powder Technology 410, 2022 (accepted manuscript). Bournemouth University repository. Read 2026-10-06.
  8. Efe, et al. (PNNL and Argonne National Laboratory). Alloy selective optical sorting of mixed post-consumer aluminum scrap streams. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 223, 2025 (accepted manuscript). OSTI record 3021470. Read 2026-10-06.
  9. Eriez. Eddy current separators (product page). Undated. eriez.com, eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  10. Eriez. Eddy current separator, REA cartridge design, manual SM-780-1. 2010. eriez.com, SM-780-1 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  11. Eriez. RevX-E eddy current separator, manual RM-99. April 2015. eriez.com, RM-99 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  12. Eriez. Suspended permanent magnets, manual SM-305. 2012. eriez.com, SM-305 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  13. Eriez. Ultra high frequency eddy current separator (brochure). 2016. eriez.com, UHF brochure (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  14. GBB, for the Can Manufacturers Institute. Aluminum beverage can: driver of the U.S. recycling system. 2020. cancentral.com (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  15. Goudsmit Magnetics. What determines the separation efficiency of eddy current systems (knowledge base). Undated. goudsmitmagnetics.com, efficiency of eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  16. Goudsmit Magnetics. EddyFines eddy current separator 1500 mm. Undated. goudsmitmagnetics.com, EddyFines 1500 mm. Read 2026-10-06.
  17. Goudsmit Magnetics. EddyFines eddy current separators. Undated. goudsmitmagnetics.com, EddyFines. Read 2026-10-06.
  18. Hader, A., et al. Experimental and numerical analysis of the magnetic force applied to aluminum particles in an eddy current separator. International Journal of Plasma Environmental Science and Technology 18, 2024. ijpest.com (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  19. IFE Aufbereitungstechnik. Eddy current separators (brochure). March 2026. ife-bulk.com (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  20. Industrial Magnetics, Inc. Eddy current separator service manual 900505. Undated. magnetics.com, manual 900505 (PDF). Read 2026-10-06. Industrial Magnetics supplies eddy current separators and magnets to Remcon Equipment, the publisher's affiliate.
  21. ReMA (Recycled Materials Association). ISRI Specifications. July 2026. isrispecs.org (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  22. Ruan, J., and Xu, Z. Approaches to improve separation efficiency of eddy current separation for recovering aluminum from waste toner cartridges. Environmental Science and Technology 46(11), 2012 (abstract). PubMed record 22571825. Read 2026-10-06.
  23. Ruan, J., et al. Key factors of eddy current separation for recovering aluminum from crushed e-waste. Waste Management 60, 2017 (abstract). PubMed record 27553908. Read 2026-10-06.
  24. Settimo, F., Bevilacqua, P., and Rem, P. Eddy current separation of fine non-ferrous particles from bulk streams. Physical Separation in Science and Engineering 13(1), 2004. repository.tudelft.nl. Read 2026-10-06.
  25. SGM Magnetics. Eddy current separators. Undated. sgmmagnetics.com, eddy current separators. Read 2026-10-06.
  26. SGM Magnetics. BVIS model (product page). Undated. sgmmagnetics.com, BVIS model. Read 2026-10-06.
  27. STEINERT. EddyC FINES. Undated. steinertglobal.com, EddyC FINES. Read 2026-10-06.
  28. Šyc, M., et al. Metal recovery from incineration bottom ash: state-of-the-art and recent developments. Journal of Hazardous Materials 393, 2020 (postprint). cris.unibo.it (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  29. TOMRA and Metso Outotec. Sensor-based ore sorting (brochure). 2022. metso.com (PDF). Read 2026-10-06.
  30. Wagner Magnete. Non-ferrous separator. Undated. wagner-magnete.com, non-ferrous separator. Read 2026-10-06.
  31. Remcon Equipment, Inc., the publisher's affiliate. Its own pages, for the affiliate facts in At a glance and section 1: eddy current aluminum separators, overhead magnetic separators, magnetic head pulley, trommels, disc screens, vibratory screens and vibratory feeders. Read 2026-10-06.

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